A complex intervention perspective on psychedelic-assisted psychotherapy: the role of music

The role of music in psychedelic-assisted psychotherapy.

In this narrative review, Bacchi et al. (2026) argue that music should be considered an important component of psychedelic-assisted psychotherapy (PAP), rather than simply background stimulation, because it can interact with the psychedelic drug, therapeutic environment, therapist and participant to shape the subjective experience.

Their narrative review highlights evidence that music can influence emotional, cognitive and experiential responses during psychedelic sessions, while also noting that the existing literature is heterogeneous and that music is often insufficiently described in clinical trials. The authors emphasise that this makes it difficult to determine the specific contribution of music to therapeutic outcomes and to compare findings across studies.

Rather than recommending that all PAP studies use an identical playlist, they propose that music should be standardised according to its intended function—such as supporting emotional engagement or the progression of the psychedelic experience—while allowing the specific musical content to vary according to therapeutic context, individual preferences and cultural factors. They therefore argue that future PAP research should systematically report musical characteristics and use mixed-methods approaches to investigate how music interacts with other components of treatment. Overall, the review conceptualises PAP as a complex intervention in which music may contribute to the therapeutic process, while emphasising that further research is needed to establish its specific role and mechanisms.

Abstract

Music is played in almost every psychedelic-assisted psychotherapy (PAP) session and is one of the top contextual factors that trials should report. This narrative review examines how music acts on the brain, how it is used in PAP, and why it is difficult to study. We argue that PAP is a complex intervention in which music shapes the drug experience, and that standardization should apply to function rather than form.

Bacchi, P.S., Barbosa, S.L., Tomazela, J.V.G. et al. A complex intervention perspective on psychedelic-assisted psychotherapy: the role of music. npj Mental Health Res (2026). Read Paper

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